Chapter 1, revisited,

ww2

ww1

The function of Female representation in British World War Two propaganda

Chapter One

The Purpose of Propaganda

The concept of Propaganda

Aulich describes war propaganda “as instruments for promoting and disseminating war aims, social cohesion, ideological purpose and various forms of citizenship” (Aulich, J, 2007:2 War Posters: weapons of mass communication, London, Thames & Hudson).

British World War One and Two propaganda was a form of mass communication that aimed to effectively communicate to an individual. It was a strong tool used as influential material, it encouraged men and women’s involvement in the war, in terms of the War’s productivity and often categorised roles for both men and women. This ability to convey messages to the general public was simple enough, it was the communicating to each one as an individual where lay the success of War propaganda.

War propaganda has been described as ‘Weapons of War’ as it played such a large role regarding war recruitment. During both World War One and Two, The Government hired advertising agencies to help produce campaigns that swayed opinions, encouraging the public to join the War forces. Propaganda campaigns throughout World War One began to grow negative connotations, due to issues of its relevance and truth behind the messages, being raised.

“The study of propaganda in the twentieth century came to the fore in the aftermath of the First World War. The widespread employment of methods to alter public opinion stimulated both interest in its usefulness and fears about its power to manipulate the public. During the conflict, rumours had abounded on both sides pertaining to the atrocities carried out by the other. In an effort to understand these issues, writers have sought to dissect the incidences of propaganda and formulate definitions based upon the reasons and the results of these attempts at manipulation.” (Wilcox, D, 2005:9 Propaganda, the Press and Conflict, New York, Routledge)

 Although such responses and analysis of the power of propaganda could cause it’s usage to be questioned and possibly deteriorate, propaganda continued to exist throughout World War Two through advertising agencies such as, The British Political Warfare Executive. It’s powerful manipulation of public opinion, perhaps feared, was very effective when regarding the recruitment for World War One and Two. The “interest in it’s usefulness” clearly overcame the “fear about it’s power to manipulate the public”. What was more constructive towards War recruitment was the achievement that gained more importance. Authorities such as The British Political Warfare Executive had the power and ideological state to overlook the questions and fears arising from propaganda, it’s “power to manipulate public opinion” was so much more interesting and useful to those in the position free from that very affect.

Especially throughout the Second World War, it also played a part in communicating proper behaviour amongst War zones. It expressed simple instructions that aimed to deal with blackouts, lack of food, savouring food etc… Although, it still portrayed that motivation, aiming to encourage and hopefully enlist everyone able.  

War Aims

What were the aims behind the production of War propaganda? It claimed to have the ability to construct ‘social cohesion’, why is this idea of ‘social cohesion’ necessary? 

“There are two main reasons for people wishing to join themselves into a group; to achieve a shared goal or oppose a common threat and to feel a sense of belonging and security” (Buton, G 1998:102, More Than Words, an introduction into communication, USA, Routledge).

The reason to achieve a shared goal could be more likely to stem from the producers of the propaganda. Taking part in and there being a chance of success within the Wars would mean having a bigger, stronger army. By 1937 200, 000 soldiers had joined the armed forces, however the Government knew this wasn’t enough When the Second World War broke out in 1939, 875,000 had joined the British Army, which still seemed too little. By October 1939, it was a requirement that any men aged between 20 and 23 had to enlist, and any men between the ages 18 and 65 would be encouraged to do so as well. Therefore promoting through propaganda and encouraging ‘social cohesion’ would encourage men and women to commit towards the war and therefore greaten their chance of being successful whilst fighting in both World War One and Two. Propaganda is persuasion, if you can “persuade others to join you, then the influence of the group can be greater than the separate efforts of lots of individuals” (Buton, G 1998:102, More Than Words, an introduction into communication, USA, Routledge).

A group being more influential the more that are in it, is much what propaganda aimed to communicate.  This idea that “the influence of the group can be greater than the separate efforts of lots of individuals” (Buton, G 1998:102, More Than Words, an introduction into communication, USA, Routledge), links into justifying another reason for joining a group, “to have a sense of belonging and security” (Buton, G 1998:102, More Than Words, an introduction into communication, USA, Routledge). Viewers of propaganda were often persuaded into joining the army, due to fear of not being involved. Studying the World War 1 propaganda poster, there is an obvious group being portrayed. A line of soldiers who almost seem repeated, all looking alike and wearing the same uniform. The question, ‘Will you fit it?’ not only persuades the reader to feel they can fit the position; it also creates a situation where the reader is clearly not involved in. These method not only makes the reader feel left out, it also makes the group the reader is currently in, seem not the one he should be in. Similarly we have the same style image from a British World War Two poster. The image shows a group of soldiers in the background, a lot like the ones in the World War One poster. Guilt is an another idea expressed through this, ‘Who’s Absent?”, communicating again this idea of non involvement in a group. Using the word ‘Absent’ gives the reader an idea that he should be there, he is isolated from the group featured in the image, he feels like an outsider, observing and reading from the outside. This strong sense of withdrawal gained from viewing both examples of propaganda can easily fit into the category of ‘manipulation of public opinion’, this idea of highlighting a group as a way of luring in those who weren’t currently involved in it.

(WW1)  (WW2)

Approached through guilt, the feeling of not being part of a group could be persuasive enough for any individual. So the aims of the producers of the propaganda drove the production of it, whilst the longing to be part of the ‘group’ is what made propaganda successful. Two different aims and beliefs are what enabled propaganda to be an effective communicative tool, producing it through ideological states of mind.

There exists “a thoroughly negative meaning in western countries, representing the intentional dissemination of often false, but certainly ‘compelling’ claims to support or justify political actions or ideologies” (Avant-Garde Magazine (AGm), 30th January 2011, Propaganda ‘http://avant-gardes.com/2011/01/propaganda/’ ).

Propaganda was approached and received differently by different people. An audience holds a variety of beliefs, opinions and roles within society, which become the structure behind Ideology. When propaganda is communicated to an audience, considerations into these different backgrounds can clearly be seen. The producers of propaganda would have different views and beliefs to those receiving it, the material used to produce propaganda would be a “body of ideas articulated by a particular group of people” (Storey, J 1997:3 An Introduction into Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, UK, MPG Books Ltd). One of propaganda’s purposes was to recruit, so automatically the status of those behind the material are seemed as more authoritative, in their case, their ‘particular group’ is that of a higher status. Those with this higher status do not wish to recruit themselves, they have no reason to communicate to each other. Their position in society is to rule over those with less authority, enabling them to produce material that makes this possible. Their approach to War appears different to the audience they are communicating to. This ‘particular group’s’ success would lye in their understanding and ability to connect with the other ‘particular group’.

The group that appear to have a higher status (the producers of propaganda), are able to create and “present distorted images of reality” (Storey, J 1997:3 An Introduction into Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, UK, MPG Books Ltd) through propaganda. The ideological approach presents them with images that connote messages only they have the ability to conjure. Therefore, for viewers other than themselves, the images and messages shown through propaganda could be seen as distorted. They are rendered and manipulated so able to work effectively and appropriately. When regarding ideological approaches, we can never be sure which images are truthful, as each derives from varied opinions/beliefs. However, could propaganda work within the “interests of the powerful against the interest of the powerless” (Storey, J 1997:3 An Introduction into Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, UK, MPG Books Ltd).  Does the higher status of those producing the propaganda enable them to conceal their hidden goals and aims, through communicating these ‘distorted images’ to those less powerful? The viewers of the propaganda, the less powerful ‘group’s beliefs of what is being portrayed through the propaganda could relate to what they want to achieve, that being, ‘social cohesion.

“In wartime, truth is so precious that she should always be attended by a bodyguard of lies.

Winston Churchill, British Prime Minister during World War II” (http://www.globalissues.org/article/157/war-propaganda-and-the-media)

Metaphorically taking the ‘bodyguard of lies’ and transforming that into a representation of propaganda, the hidden connotations behind propaganda itself could be explored. In war time defining an ideological state could be the “usage intended to draw attention to the way in which texts (fiction, novels, radio, art etc…) always present a particular image to the world (Storey, J 1997:5 An Introduction into Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, UK, MPG Books Ltd). The idea of protecting the truth by surrounding it with lies could potentially be the purpose of propaganda. The result of successful propaganda being that, that presents a ‘particular image’ to the world. Simplifying ideological groups into two participating groups (the producers and the receivers), the methods behind propaganda become clearer. With status, comes knowledge, regarding Churchill and his quote, it’s clear he, like other authorities, knew the truth but chose to parade it hidden amongst lies. Whether it relates directly to the usage of propaganda or not, it’s relevance to World War One and Two, in general, is apparent. Is it knowledge of the truth that actually enabled those with more status to lie? Therefore, the producers of had power over those viewing it.

Conversely, does surrounding the truth with lies, producing propaganda through specific, one-sided beliefs glue a society together? Is creating social cohesion a necessity that allows such manipulation to take place.

“Marx argues that each significant period in history is constructed around a particular ‘mode of production’; that is, the way in which a society is organised (i.e slave, feudal, capitalist) to produce the necessaries of life” (Storey, J 1997:101 An Introduction into Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, UK, MPG Books Ltd).

Considering World War One and Two as significant periods in history, would the purpose of propaganda, and the methods behind it’s production also fall into producing “the necessaries of life”. To create social cohesion, an idea of a ‘group’ needs to be made accessible. However, without the ‘producers’, then this idea of what is needed to contribute to the ‘mode of production’ would never be delivered to those who need to view it. Propaganda’s role could be seen as simply the messenger, between two social groups. The authorities conjure the appropriate message, perhaps disregarding everything or almost everything truthful. Sieving out what is necessary and ‘surrounding it with lies’ to ensure success, fulfilling ‘the necessaries of life’ and communicating an effective message. Whilst the propaganda obtains this information, this persuasion, the other social group (the viewers) respond to this. Through guilt and desire to be part of a ‘group’, they react, joining the army, responsibly producing ‘the necessaries of life’, contributing to the War.

Dissertation - new chapter one, possibility

After talking to Andy, we decided to make my previous chapter 1, chapter 2. This is now my first draft for chapter 1

Chapter One

The Purpose of Propaganda

The concept of Propaganda

War propaganda was described “as instruments for promoting and disseminating war aims, social cohesion, ideological purpose and various forms of citizenship” (Aulich, J, 2007:2 War Posters: weapons of mass communication, London, Thames & Hudson).

Propaganda was a form of mass communication that aimed to effectively communicate to an individual. It was a strong tool used as influential material, most of what propaganda communicated was false and biased. It encouraged men and women’s involvement in the war, in terms of the War’s productivity and often categorised roles for both men and women. This ability to attack the general public with messages was simple enough, it was the communicating to each one as an individual where lay the success of War propaganda.

War propaganda has been described as ‘Weapons of War’ as it played such a large role regarding war recruitment. During both World War One and Two, The Government hired advertising agencies to help produce campaigns that swayed opinions, encouraging the public to join the War forces. Propaganda campaigns throughout World War One began to grow negative connotations, due to issues of its relevance and truth behind the messages, being raised. However, propaganda continued to exist throughout World War Two through advertising agencies such as, The British Political Warfare Executive.

Propaganda, especially throughout the Second World War, also played a part in communicating proper behaviour amongst War zones. It expressed simple instructions that aimed to deal with blackouts, lack of food, savouring food etc… Although, it still portrayed that motivation, aiming to encourage and hopefully enlist everyone able.  

War Aims

What were the aims behind the production of War propaganda? It claimed to have the ability to construct ‘social cohesion’, why is this idea of ‘social cohesion’ necessary? 

“There are two main reasons for people wishing to join themselves into a group; to achieve a shared goal or oppose a common threat and to feel a sense of belonging and security” (Buton, G 1998:102, More Than Words, an introduction into communication, USA, Routledge). These two reasons could be split into two groups, belonging to two different categories. The reason to achieve a shared goal could be more likely to stem from the producers of the propaganda. Taking part in and there being a chance of success within the Wars would mean having a bigger, stronger army. Promoting propaganda and encouraging ‘social cohesion’ would greater their chance of being successful whilst fighting in both World War One and Two. Propaganda is persuasion, if you can “persuade others to join you, then the influence of the group can be greater than the separate efforts of lots of individuals” (Buton, G 1998:102, More Than Words, an introduction into communication, USA, Routledge).

A group being more influential the more that are in it, is much what propaganda aimed to communicate.  This idea that “the influence of the group can be greater than the separate efforts of lots of individuals” (Buton, G 1998:102, More Than Words, an introduction into communication, USA, Routledge), links into justifying another reason for joining a group, “to have a sense of belonging and security” (Buton, G 1998:102, More Than Words, an introduction into communication, USA, Routledge). Viewers of propaganda were often persuaded into joining the army, due to fear of not being involved. Approached through guilt, the feeling of not being part of a group could be persuasive enough for any individual. So the aims of the producers of the propaganda drove the production of it, whilst the longing to be part of the ‘group’ is what made propaganda successful. Two different aims and beliefs are what enabled propaganda to be an effective communicative tool, producing it through ideological states of mind.

Their exists “a thoroughly negative meaning in western countries, representing the intentional dissemination of often false, but certainly ‘compelling’ claims to support or justify political actions or ideologies” (wikipedia, propaganda).

Propaganda was approached and received differently by different people. An audience holds a variety of beliefs, opinions and roles within society, which become the structure behind Ideology. When propaganda is communicated to an audience, considerations into these different backgrounds can clearly be seen. The producers of propaganda would have different views and beliefs to those receiving it, the material used to produce propaganda would be a “body of ideas articulated by a particular group of people” (Storey, J 1997:3 An Introduction into Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, UK, MPG Books Ltd). One of propaganda’s purposes was to recruit, so automatically the status of those behind the material are seemed as more authoritative, in their case, their ‘particular group’ is that of a higher status. Their approach to War appears different to the audience they are communicating to. This ‘particular group’s’ success would lie in their understanding and ability to connect with the other ‘particular group’. The group that appear to have a higher status (the producers of propaganda), are able to create and “present distorted images of reality” (Storey, J 1997:3 An Introduction into Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, UK, MPG Books Ltd) through propaganda. The ideological approach presents them with images that connote messages only they have the ability to conjure. When regarding ideological approaches, we can never be sure which images are truthful, as each derives from varied opinions/beliefs. However, could propaganda work within the “interests of the powerful against the interest of the powerless” (Storey, J 1997:3 An Introduction into Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, UK, MPG Books Ltd).  Does the higher status of those producing the propaganda enable them to conceal their hidden goals and aims, through communicating these ‘distorted images’ to those less powerful? The viewers of the propaganda, the less powerful ‘group’s beliefs of what is being portrayed through the propaganda could relate to what they want to achieve, that being, ‘social cohesion.

“In wartime, truth is so precious that she should always be attended by a bodyguard of lies.

Winston Churchill, British Prime Minister during World War II” (http://www.globalissues.org/article/157/war-propaganda-and-the-media)

Metaphorically taking the ‘bodyguard of lies’ and transforming that into a representation of propaganda, the hidden connotations behind propaganda itself could be explored. Defining an ideological state could be the “usage intended to draw attention to the way in which texts (television, fiction, pop songs, novels, feature films etc…) always present a particular image to the world (Storey, J 1997:5 An Introduction into Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, UK, MPG Books Ltd). The idea of protecting the truth by surrounding it with lies could potentially be the purpose of propaganda. The result of successful propaganda being that, that presents a ‘particular image’ to the world. Simplifying ideological groups into two participating groups (the producers and the receivers), the methods behind propaganda become clearer. With status, comes knowledge, regarding Churchill and his quote, it’s clear he, like other authorities, knew the truth but chose to parade it hidden amongst lies. Whether it relates directly to the usage of propaganda or not, it’s relevance to World War One and Two, in general, is apparent. Is it knowledge of the truth that actually enabled those with more status to lie? Therefore, the producers of had power over those viewing it.

Conversely, does surrounding the truth with lies, producing propaganda through specific, one-sided beliefs glue a society together. Is creating social cohesion a necessity that allows such ‘lying’ to take place.

“Marx argues that each significant period in history is constructed around a particular ‘mode of production’; that is, the way in which a society is organised (i.e slave, feudal, capitalist) to produce the necessaries of life” (Storey, J 1997:101 An Introduction into Cultural Theory and Popular Culture, UK, MPG Books Ltd).

Considering World War One and Two as significant periods in history, would the purpose of propaganda, and the methods behind it’s production also fall into producing “the necessaries of life”. To create social cohesion, an idea of a ‘group’ needs to be made accessible. However, without the ‘producers’, then this idea of what is needed to contribute to the ‘mode of production’ would never be delivered to those who need to view it. Propaganda’s role could be seen as simply the messenger, between two social groups. The authorities conjure the appropriate message, perhaps disregarding everything or almost everything truthful. Sieving out what is necessary and ‘surrounding it with lies’ to ensure success, fulfilling ‘the necessaries of life’ and communicating an effective message. Whilst the propaganda obtains this information, this persuasion, the other social group (the viewers) respond to this. Through guilt and desire to be part of a ‘group’, they react, joining the army, responsibly producing ‘the necessaries of life’, contributing to the War.

“de-indivduation, what happens when people become anonymous and the type of behaviour it brings out, given masks to make you feel anonymous and feel as part of a crowd, becoming less and less like individuals and more and more like a mob”

First chapter - case study images,

 

 Figure 64

 

Figure 102

 

Figure 111

 

Figure 1

 

 Figure 211

 

Figure 238

Dissertation - first chapter draft

The function of Female representation in British World War Two propaganda

Chapter One

Women as carers

War propaganda was described “as instruments for promoting and disseminating war aims, social cohesion, ideological purpose and various forms of citizenship” (Aulich, J, 2007:2 War Posters: weapons of mass communication, London, Thames & Hudson).

Throughout most of the First World War, the purpose of women was obvious, and war propaganda kept it’s promise by clearly promoting this purpose to the public.

Purpose being, of course, this stereotype that labeled all women as carers, housewives, the ones that didn’t go to War, the ones who barely contributed in it for that matter. It could even be that in some posters, the representation of women could be eliminated all together, as their ‘purpose’ was so pointless, that there was not much point in addressing it at all. Their duty within most First World War propaganda was to accompany the Men, their role being far less superior. Studying Figure 64, the woman is represented only by words. There is the striking image of the soldier, dressed in his authoritative uniform, perched with all his necessary attire and two ‘working’ men in the background. The connotations behind this image suggest high levels of importance. The man is the main focus; he immediately communicates war, masculinity and purpose. The recognition we get of ‘her’, is the letter he is writing to her. The amount of ‘caring’ aspects that are expressed through this poster are numerous; The type that reads ‘Keep on sending me OXO’, not only does this sound more of a demand, which addresses the fact that he is superior enough to ask for such treatment, but it explores the idea of it being her job. The repetitiveness that is shown in, ‘keep on sending me’ is the idea that she has to serve him, whilst he serves his country. Automatically her social status is degraded. Her role as a woman, her role as a contribution to the Great War, is to keep on sending her ‘working’ husband OXO. Her role is to care for him. She does not have a face, or a name, but she isn’t important, the soldier in the poster is, and so he must be cared for.

This idea of propaganda promoting social cohesion, is discussed some what differently through Ellul. This idea that an individual was addressed as a group, “that the individual never is considered as an individual, but always in terms of what he has in common with others, such as his motivations, his feelings, or his myths” (Ellul, J 1973:7 Propaganda, the formation of men’s attitudes, United States, Random House).  This could relate to both men and women. Roles of both were distinguished by what was portrayed through such propaganda, the idea that all men should be in uniform, at war, receiving OXO in parcels from their caring, slave-like housewives. Immediately we are confronted with visual representations (even without an actual image of the woman) of how both gender groups should be. Such a large aspect of successful propaganda was that it was able to attack an individual’s independent beliefs, issues and opinions, but when “propaganda is addressed to a crowd, it must touch each individual in that crowd, in that whole group” (Ellul, J 1973:7 Propaganda, the formation of men’s attitudes, United States, Random House). Therefore this idea of individuality is actually non-existent, both men and women were given roles, the same roles running throughout each gender group. This apparent segregation of men and women is caused by the lack of social cohesion promoted by propaganda. It glues fraudulent societies together, one society being men, the other, women, conjured up by Government opinion (not an individual).

However, independence is weakened further for women. This iconic poster (see Figure 102), shows two women and a child in a state of security. They are labelled as ‘Women of Britain’, which once again, clearly states that particular social group, and their clothes and overall situation connotes a mixture of messages. The image actually centralises the woman figure, portraying her as quite important, she is higher up than the small group of soldiers, who also seem to be leaving the frame. However, this idea of the men leaving, does communicate their ability to go, their independence. The text even states ‘Women of Britain say GO!’, so already we are confronted with a lack of purpose on the women’s behalf. The fact she is looking out of the window suggests she cannot leave the house, her role obviously being the role of a ‘housewife’. We can now link this with the other poster (see figure 64), our visual representation of the women who sent the soldier Oxo, is similar to that of the women stood inside the house. Gender grouping is shown with such clarity within this poster (figure 102), the soldiers are in an actual, structured group in uniform, with their large weapons. Then there is a cluster of women and children, in the corner, in the safety of the house.

Why does propaganda set out to group individuals? Why are there groups? “We accept to a greater or lesser extent the goals and expected behaviour patterns of a group to which we belong” (Burton, G 1998:106, More Than Words: An introduction to Communication, UK, Routledge). This can be analysed ideologically, in the sense that people joined groups to evenly distribute the work load, to achieve goals that may be far more difficult without doing so. The government portraying these gender groups as they did, enabled them to target the right individuals to join the right jobs. Their authority instantly granted them this luxury of luring in others, giving them more of a chance of success within whatever roles they considered hard to achieve individually. It could be described as “ideological abuse” (Barthes, R, 2000:11, Mythologies, London, Vintage), individuals are roped into joining groups that completely disable their chance of really being independent. So whilst it seemed women were seen as less independent because of the social, gender group they were in, actually, were men’s groups also decreasing their independence too? “We assign status to various groups although there may not be universal agreement on which groups confer which status. One person wears a uniform with pride which another person wouldn’t be seen dead in” (Burton, G 1998:104, More Than Words: An introduction to Communication, UK, Routledge). Once reading this, you automatically stage the authoritative character being that of perhaps a Sergeant, or someone of higher value amongst your average soldier. Perhaps it suggests a government figure instead, someone who’s authority, grants him power over everyone’s roles in life. Although, could this statement of ‘uniform’ be so literal, that it suggests the divide between men and women throughout The First World War? There were those who wore the uniform, and there were those who “wouldn’t been seen dead in it”. So without this stereotypical uniform that women were rarely seen in, what other roles could they possibly contribute to other than caring for those who were able to wear it?

Female: a male’s object

 “Woman as image, Man as bearer of the look”

(Mulvey, L, 1989:19, Visual and Other Pleasures, New York, Palgrave)

As women began to appear more so in later First World War propaganda and then far more amongst World War Two propaganda, outlooks onto this propaganda varied between sexist, and respectful. A later piece of World War One propaganda produced in 1917, shows a women slicing a loaf of bread for her child, (see figure 111). If this were a form of contemporary advertising, the women would not be sexually appealing, connotations behind her clothes suggests plainness, and show no sign of trying to show her off sexually.  In a long-sleeved shirt, and long skirt, she is completely covered, the lack of thighs and cleavage suggest perhaps men saw women differently in 1917. However, gaze theoretically speaking, she was still an ‘object’, her role in First World War was very much so to do with caring, and being a good housewife. “What counts is what the heroine provokes, or rather what she represents” (Mulvey, L, 1989:19, Visual and Other Pleasures, New York, Palgrave). So a women dressed in dreary, dull clothes, could be seen as unattractive, but did the loaf of bread, and sense of hospitality reassure the Men, in the sense that perhaps a women’s sexual attraction was not within her sex appeal, but more so, her role as being that particular sex, that specific gender, that men could not live without. Did they fantasise over having the luxury and security of the perfect housewife, than the perfect female figure and sex instead?

“Men govern themselves and others” (Fiske, J, 1998:51, Understanding popular culture, London, Routledge)

Another British poster produced in 1916 (see figure 1) could also represent this image that women had, attracting men. Semiotically analysing this image, once again, her clothes are in no way ‘sexually appealing’, and she is holding a pot of ‘food’ which communicates she is a worthy cook and housewife. She is dressed in a non-provocative way (therefore the likeliness of her being seen as a sex symbol for other  men is unapparent, which could enhance security within her own, one relationship), and her situation suggests she can cook, she can look after you. So was it this idea of lack of sexual appeal that actually made the image of a women sexually appealing? Could it be that the idea of ‘owning’ a perfect housewife was what men found attractive. Analysing this through feminist views, it could be that the authority men had over women, the feeling of power they had, where women served as their slaves, was it this that attracted them to women. Is this propaganda exploiting women as objects, and highlighting this “domination in which men as a group have power over women as a group” (Storey, J, 1993:135, Cornwall, MPG Books Ltd).  This also links again with the segregation of men and women, into two social groups, one in uniform, one not.

Conversely, as propaganda progresses into the Second World War, we begin to see different representations of women. The posters that aimed to prevent bad Chinese whispers, are those labelled with the tagline ‘Careless talk costs lives’, (see figure 211). “The woman provided an obvious stereotype as sexually alluring” (Aulich, J, 2007:172 War Posters: weapons of mass communication, London, Thames & Hudson). This poster connotes women in a more familiar way, more skin is shown, she is wearing make up, her feminine figure is more visible and overall, her sexual appeal,(in our contemporary understanding of it), is much more obvious. In fact, her appearance within the image is a lot more superior then what has been seen before of women within war propaganda. She is most definitely the main focus, and her social status seems to have grown to maybe a little higher than the men surrounding her? The text is negatively positive, it suggests an improvement of how women were viewed, but also clearly states how women once were viewed. ‘Keep mum she’s not so dumb’, stating how women were once perceived as ‘dumb mums’ is extremely degrading, however the text and image combined shows a big improvement for how this ‘group’ were now seen as. Although men may have the more authoritative jobs, and purpose within the War, in this image, especially, do women seem to have a peculiar power over men, in which they simply flaunt their femininity. Men become less strong, their masculinity weakened when women are “looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact” (Mulvey, L, 1989:19, Visual and Other Pleasures, New York, Palgrave). This impact being stronger than the uniform men dressed in, the structured, monotonous uniform that the male group all wore. This idea of individuality seems to be creeping back into the female society, whilst all the men surrounding her are dressed in what appears to be uniform, she is sat, confidently wearing a dress that no other women has to wear.

“She is isolated, glamorous, on display, sexualised. But as the narrative progresses she falls in love with the main male protagonist and becomes his property, losing her outward glamerous characteristics, her generalised sexuality, her show girl connotations; her eroticism is subjected to the male star alone. By means of identification with him, through participation in his power” (Mulvey, L, 1989:21, Visual and Other Pleasures, New York, Palgrave

Does the lack of her being within a group actually make her the hierarchy figure? The joining of a group meant she would have had to “sacrafice some individual freedom of action” (Burton, G 1998:106, More Than Words: An introduction to Communication, UK, Routledge). Now as a more independent figure, does this women, although still an object, bear a far more superior purpose. Studying the image further, the men are talking around her, looking at her, she seems separate from the men. However, does this independence grant her with a better social status or does it in fact lower it. She seems too much like an object too be looked at only, there seems to be a lack of interactivity that could eliminate her from society completely. The lack of her having a label/group could distance herself from having that role, that crucial role that made her a part of society. Does she still need that uniform that labeled her, is her as an object actually forcing her into having less of an objective within society.

Women as producers

“Even though the differentiation of sexual stereotypes is rightly being challenged, there still presently remain some expectations about appropriate behavior for men and women” (Burton, G 1998:108, More Than Words: An introduction to Communication, UK, Routledge)

In 1917, the first and biggest women’s service for World War One was established. It was the ‘Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps’, by the end of the war it consisted of 40,000 women. Other organisations and institutes were formed, some being, The Women’s Royal Navy service (founded in 1917) and the Women’s Royal Air Force (formed 1918). This introduction of women working productively in the war not only raised their employment rates to 7,310,500 women, but also increased their purpose and social status within society. 

Is Burton’s quote referring to the “expectations about appropriate behaviour for men and women” (Burton, G 1998:108, More Than Words: An introduction to Communication, UK, Routledge), still acknowledgeable throughout this new era of pro-feminine propaganda, or do women of war actually metaphorically fall into the same group as men. Studying figure 238, the representation of women is most definitely a strong, purposeful ‘producer’. Semiotically analysing the image, the producers lye within both the man and woman, they are both in uniform, (which remains to be a strong representation of status within society), and the woman is placed closer, and higher up in the image. This suggests her authority literally, in terms of the subject being communicated through the image.

Foucault explores how “power produces knowledge, power and knowledge directly imply one another, there is no power relation without the correlative constitution of a field of knowledge” (Storey, J, 1993:97, Cornwall, MPG Books Ltd). Immediately the perception of women has changed drastically, through one image, women are seen differently. However this is due to the representation of her through this image, she is defined as a producer. This knowledge that she seems to now behold has granted her power. She is no longer being referred to as “dumb” or “mum”, but as a server, a producer alongside the men in the WAAF. Her role as a producer has given women the chance to gain more power within society, among her own gender group.

Conversely, has this image, theoretically, also confronted the issue of women serving men. Although they appear to be serving proactively in war, they seem to have this new established power, this authority, the text “Serve in the WAAF, with the men who fly”, could disagree with this. “He is merely a man at the service of a party, a State, or some other organisation, and his task is to insure the efficiency of that organisation” (Ellul, J 1973:197 Propaganda, the formation of men’s attitudes, United States, Random House). Is the collaboration among the ‘men who fly’ what gives the women their new power? Are they still serving men, as they always have done? Ellul states that part of a man’s success lies within the efficiency of his organisation. Is a  women’s involvement in that, a women working for men to ensure success. Is that power, or merely women reverting back to their original role as ‘carers’. Were the expectations of women’s roles prior to 1917 too damaged to permit them any more commitment to war work, than serving alongside men, or  “as we are all born equal, we should be treated as equals” (Hughes, C, 2002:33, Feminist Theory and Research, London, Sage Publications Ltd). Should women be serving with the men who fly, or as the men who fly.

(Include more case studies?)

Dissertation thought, 25/09/11

"Feminist views expressed through WW1 (or) 2 propaganda"

"The comparison between the propaganda throughout ww1 and that of ww2, regarding the exploration of feminism through it"


REASONS TO ADDRESS WW1

- More examples of anti-feminism are apparent, the women only began to work productively 1917

- Therefore more imagery to analyse that contains feminist content


REASONS TO ADDRESS WW2


- There is more evidence of feminism explored through ww2 propaganda. Women worked alongside men and productively in the war.


------------------


- could my essay almost act chronologically? WW1 which then leads to the type of propganda in WW2 (commenting on the contrast?)


- Should I write about how in ww1 women were not treated equally, which is shown through the propaganda? How the propaganda presents the emerging of equality? 


- Semiotically, analysing ww1 posters shows how the role of women has changed so much. The rise of feminism??

- I will focus on BRITISH propaganda

- How ww1 & ww2 British propaganda showed the productiveness of women's roles


* analysed through semiotic - hidden messages
* sociological research into social role of women
* the specific type & image


WORLD WAR 1 PROPAGANDA EXPLORING THE RISE OF FEMINISM (discuss)???

IDEA FOR DISSERTATION PROPOSAL.

RELATING FEMININITY WITH THE EXPLORATION OF WORLD WAR 2 PROPAGANDA??


HOW WOMEN WERE PERCIEVED THROUGH WORLD WAR 2 PROPAGANDA??

sessions,

DISSERTATION

DISSERTATION

Task 6 - Theory in practice,

The post I have studied from Gary's blog is his reflection on the first lecture, surveillance and Foucault. He mentions how, "graphic design helps in the formation of social and cultural identities, it is reasonable to suggest that class, racial/ethnic age and gender groups etc. are often represented by stereotypes within the graphic design industry." A piece of Graphic Design I produced a long with my collaborative partner, was the promotional material for a new product being released by Green and Black's. Throughout the couple of weeks where we were working on this particular brief, the audience we were aiming to was constantly being considered. I think Gary is right in saying that graphic design does relate a lot to it's audience, and it has the ability to stereotype specifics into liking the same design. The target audience we were aiming our product at, were fairly young adults, who were interested in premium foods, especially chocolate. This narrowed down our design choices a lot, as the 'class' in this case, had to be considered when wanting to promote the chocolate accordingly. Technically, a consumer is being stereotyped if they are choosing to buy a product that has been designed to target themseleves. For example, a customer seeking Green and Black's chocolate wouldn't pick up a bar of 'Toffee crisp' or any other chocolate bar that didn't consist of dark colours, smooth strap lines, fancy packaging and a delicate typeface. So is all graphic design supported with an essence of 'standardization', in the sense that it is all suited for a particular reason, to a very particular audience, in a particular way.

Essay,

Does Advertising have to be redundant to successfully communicate brand image?

“Every aspect of our daily lives is affected by our communication with others, as well as by messages from people we don’t even know – people both near and far, living and dead” (Littlejohn, 2005:2).

“When we communicate, we exchange messages;

- to warn

- to advise

- to inform

- to persuade

- to express opinions

- to amuse”

(Burton, 1998:22).

Advertising is a form of communication that informs and persuades others.

For advertising to be successful it must be able to communicate the right message. How it does this, becomes a debatable issue. With the use of analysing communication theories, the effectiveness of a message communicated through advertising can be explored. A simple representation of a communication theory derives from the Shannon and Weaver’s Mathematical Theory of Communication, (see figure six). Fiske describes the model as being, “one of the main seeds out of which Communication Studies has grown” (Fiske, 1990:6). The model is a linear sequence, that begins with an ‘information source’, and ends with its ‘destination’. A way to understand the process is by relating the model to a communication device, such as a telephone. The transmitter being someone’s mouth, the signals, sound waves which then pass through the channel of air.  The ear is then the receiver. However, there is a ‘noise source’ that interferes with the communication process.   Using the telephone example again, this could be a loss of signal causing the message, to break up or become harder to understand. In terms of Advertising, this ‘noise source’ could be anything from an unclear message, to an unclear method of communicating the message.

Communication is either redundant or entropic, if a message is entropic then it isn’t predictable, and there is room to question what the message means. Conversely, a redundant form of communication could be someone gesturing a handshake. The message being communicated is clear, and the response is quite obvious. If we were to make a handshake more entropic, perhaps elements of a prank could be included, although highly immature. If a buzzer was attached to the hand, which the opposition was about to shake, the message becomes unclear, and jolted…literally. Linking entropy with the Shannon and Weaver model seems to fit where the ‘noise source’ is situated. If a message becomes entropic then it becomes less obvious, it “limits the amount of desired information that can be sent in a given situation in a given time” (Fiske,1990:8). So surely, regarding the ‘Mathematical Theory of Communication’, an entropic form of communication could be considered as ‘noise source’, a distortion to the message trying to be communicated.

So, is redundant communication considered as better communication. Or, does entropy alongside redundancy make better communication, or is it simply a noise source that is nothing but irritation.  Should advertising be redundant to be successful?

Discussing why redundancy work so well when communicating to an audience, safety is important when advertising. If an audience can predict a message then it seems easier and more comfortable to follow it. “More importantly, it has developed brand adaptability into a system of planned cultural innovation”, (Kline,2009:27). Kline researches a case study that explores the marketing communications used by McDonald’s.  What makes the fast food chain so successful is the close relationship it has with its consumers. For communication to successfully work, a relationship between product and audience must be made.  McDonald’s, the international fast food company, has to be able to relate to everybody investing in its products: “spicier chicken” in China, and “mutton burgers” in India” (Kline,2009:27). In this sense, the McDonald’s menu is redundant, because the food the particular consumers are buying is predictable, it satisfies the appropriate consumers and after all, “The nature of the audience, always affects the treatment of the message. You don’t talk to teachers in the same way that you talk to friends” (Dimbleby, 1998:21). Satisfying an audience is what makes advertising successful, if they can relate to the message then, theoretically, they will understand it more. If you approached your friends with the methods of communication that you approached your teachers with, it is likely that your engagement with them wouldn’t be appropriate, and therefore you wouldn’t communicate effectively.

Therefore, effective advertising is that which communicates what the audience already wants to hear, an audience set out to “organise, categorise and synthesise information, seeking patterns and discovering connections” (Foss, 2005:16). “They help us clarify what we are observing, which helps us understand relationships among various parts and helps us better interpret and evaluate what is going on around us” (Foss, 2005:16). A McDonald’s advertisement reads, “Beefy Cheesy Glory”, (see figure one) three simple words that redundantly describe your typical McDonald’s burger. As receivers, stereotypes are effective, they expect the message regarding a McDonald’s burger to be it as a “Beefy Cheesy Glory” of a burger. There is nothing entropic in that small statement; there is no room for debate because the message is so simple. Reverting to Kline, the McDonald’s marketing is so successful because it relates to its customers. Providing the Chinese with “spicier chicken” is stereotyping, but in advertising rather than causing debate and disruption, it satisfies. The “spicier chicken” doesn’t interfere with the communication process because there isn’t anything ‘alien/new’ that could, ultimately, become a noise source.

Conversely, could entropy be just effective as an advertising tool. A ‘no-nonsense’ way of making a redundant piece of advertising entropic is to deface it. “Sometimes a piece of communication actually intends to hide some of its messages. How good it is at doing this depends on how sharp the receiver is at decoding the communication” (Burton, 1998:24). A McDonald’s advertisement (see figure two), that once read “Everything it’s cracked up to be” - alongside an Egg McMuffin, now reads “Everything that cracked dad’s arteries”.  This example of defacing a piece of advertising isn’t exactly the decoding message McDonald’s was wanting to communicate, but it shows how the receiver of the message always has to be considered. Messages can be interpreted in a variety of different ways. What was once a pun on a sentence, promoting a McDonald’s Egg McMuffin, has become a dangerously serious attack on the lack of healthy ingredients in the food.  Some would say that the new advertisement, although definitely not redundant, is slightly more effective because of its unpredictability. How we interpret a message depends on our individual perspectives, the “decoded message is not identical to the one encoded by the source because each person’s symbol system is shaped by a unique set of perspections” (Wolvin, 2001:8).

When an audience is faced with something that isn’t, as it seems, there is suddenly room for debate. Although debate may be a distraction to communicating the message, does it actually draw more attention to it? Although defacing is a ruthless way of creating a piece of entropic advertising, does its assault actually make a more frank and more effective statement? The original advert promoting Egg McMuffins created this delusion.  They were seen as being delicious by using words like “cracked” and statements such as “full of goodness” and “real ingredients (eggs)”. Therefore, an analysis into the message is not needed because the consumer knows what they want and what to expect. In terms of communicating a message this redundant advert works very well, it attracts Egg McMuffin lovers. However, once the message has been defaced and communicates something very alien to the original, will this produce a wider interest in the message and a deeper analysis of it?

Of course, defacing advertisements becomes subjective to those outside the McDonald’s advertising campaigns who have stronger opinions. Referring to defacing advertisements, perhaps it doesn’t enable better advertising through entropy, but bolder and stronger communication through a subject less comfortable.

What also distinguishes entropy from redundancy is the amount of information and the complexity of the message.  For example, the faintly entropic advertisement for Saab cars (see figure 3) includes a large paragraph of text and the title ‘Saab vs. Hercules’. The advertisement isn’t as clear as a redundant message so is there better communication when a message is more detailed or when it is a lot shorter? Does the complexity of the message allow a larger amount of “choices of a signal that can be made” (Fiske,1990:12). There is room for interpretation and analysis with this particular advertisement. The Saab vs. Hercules indicates that the car is being represented as a Greek demigod; it suggests a level of creativity but also unpredictability to those who may view the message in a different way. How a message is connoted depends on its particular viewer.  If a message has a number of choices that can be drawn from it, then the message communicated isn’t definite. It could be “the randomness of the choices” (Fiske,1990:12), that becomes an unreliable communicative source.

Is this advertising campaign for Saab somewhat redundant as well? Visually it communicates as being quite entropic, the layout, the mass of creativity and the amount of text, however, the text that stands out, ‘Saab vs. Hercules’, in terms of predictability, is quite direct. Analysing this campaign, and the reasons for why choices were made, the heading, ‘Saab vs. Hercules’ is easily communicated. It pleases its audience with a well- known heroic figure, Hercules. There is little room for debate: Hercules is a powerful figure in mythical history; therefore the owner of Saab would sense his own power and protection. Common knowledge will inform most who see this advertisement, as that of, relating this car with a powerful man, ensuring protection and power with your Saab car.

Communication theories suggest that safety within advertising is the key to success, if an audience can relate to the message being portrayed then it will be communicated better. The ‘vs.’ theme that runs throughout Saab advertisements enables the creative team to be “flexible…allowing us to pick every conceivable subject and try to find the interesting stories about the vs.” (Hickey, 2002:166). ‘Saab vs. Hercules’, ‘Hercules’ is a global figure, understood by most nations as a strong, powerful god, there isn’t much that can be argued against that, or is there?

There is another theory that supports the rarity of neutral messages. Apparently, “messages rarely come on their own, there are probably other verbal and non-verbal messages around a sentence” (Dimbleby, 1998:23). This theory suggests that as redundant as a message may seem, there is always ways to explore its entropic side, reading into it further. In fact, according to Dimbleby, “even a factual list of functions in a car advertisement is not just a neutral list. It is a selected set of messages about the good points of the car” (Dimbleby, 1998:23). This almost implies that all advertising falls under the redundant title because they express what the audience wants to see/hear. However, each message given is far from neutral as other messages can be interpreted from it, or in and around it. Advertisements do aim to persuade consumers, although the list of functions for car advertisement appear neutral, when targeting a large audience it must be impossible to satisfy every customer without manipulating the “factual list of functions in a car” (Dimbleby, 1998:23).

Some advertisements for brand image mis-spell and manipulate words in order to mould them accordingly to their particular brand. A new advertising campaign for ‘Aero Caramel’ has done this, (see figure five). They have manipulated the word ‘Irresistible’ to ‘Irresistibubble’, as a direct connection to the bubbly chocolate bar. The effectiveness of this manipulated language within advertising is disputable; does it create a more entropic atmosphere? Or does the moulding of more then one word, to create another language, to fit a brand, seem redundant and connected, and thus, easily understood?

Is it the context that these words exist in essential when maintaining understanding and purpose? If they sat alone without any of their brand image to compliment their meaning, then they could become entropic. Of course, it can’t be decided whether they are entropic of redundant on the basis of how much they rely on their surroundings, “the context might help…so far as it did, the context would be a source of redundancy” (Fiske, Introduction to communication studies, 1990:11). The accuracy of the message and its clarity is a way of determining whether it is redundant or entropic. ‘Aero Caramel’ using the slogan, “made irresistibubble’, could easily be redundant; the context in which the slogan sits, (a chocolate bar known for it’s bubble texture), and the word, ‘irresistible’ which hasn’t necessarily lost it’s legibility after being transformed. Pronunciation of the miss- spelt word speaks similarly too, if it hadn’t been changed.  The message derived from it couldn’t be easily mistaken.

There is also security within the slogan, keeping the advertisement fully related throughout. This enables a strong understanding, and the connection between the chocolate bar and the words alongside it, could ensure maximum potential when communicating the fact it is ‘irresistible’. In this case, does this particular advertisement have to be redundant to be successful? Does this advertisement communicate as fully as it would, if the words hadn’t been moulded, or if they didn’t sit in context? In terms of accuracy, has this advertisement worked? This particular use of the word ‘irresistibubble’, in a way, has become independent. It could be that the reliance it has on its context (Aero caramel chocolate bar), has also limited its meaning and definition. Will the word ‘irresistible’ be hard to grasp after the new moulded version has been introduced?  It could be that this advertisement claims redundancy, (creating a bubbly bond between the chocolate and the slogans to create simplicity and effectiveness), but has, in fact, limited its accuracy due to too much branding.

Another example of word manipulation is an advertisement for ‘Air Asia’ (see figure four). Technically no words have been manipulated; it is the meaning of the word that has been changed to ensure understanding and communication of the sentence, “Cheap enough to say, Phuket I’ll go”. A clever use of a main attraction in Thailand, ‘Phuket’, but does it communicate well? And has it become entropic or redundant?

Mis-spelling of words can create friction when trying to communicate smoothly, however, as with the Aero caramel advertisement, when these words are in context, they can communicate effectively.  ‘Air Asia’, on the other hand, isn’t a case of misspelling, but a replacement word, which would definitely be considered inappropriate. Replacing a word completely could be seen as entropic, the immediate understanding of the message is lowered, allowing room for the reader to make sense of it. Without the security of a definite meaning of the word, debate and curiosity can take over, which ultimately, makes an advertisement entropic. Intelligence is also introduced when regarding the strength of the message. If a word is manipulated then the meaning becomes clear when read, however, for some readers, “Phuket” could be just as effective as a blank space.

Conversely, does the use of a new word entirely, actually make more sense, when labelling a language as entropic, “changing a letter would mean changing the word” (Fiske,1990:11). Word manipulation relies on merging two words together, which theoretically, only communicate as a singular. However, although the sentence, ‘Cheap enough to say, Phuket I’ll go”, may rely on its context, does the message, in a way, communicate better even though much more entropic.

This style of advertising could relate to the ‘defacing’ subject that was discussed earlier. Does entropy actually create a larger, more interested, involved audience? The entropic methods of communication involve factors like, friction, insecurity, and multiple answers/resolutions. Does this debatable atmosphere also encourage interaction and further insight to what is being advertised? There are arguments stating “Redundancy also helps us overcome the deficiencies of a noisy channel. We repeat ourselves on a bad telephone line” (Fiske, 1990:11). Is it the repetition that enables a more in depth interaction with the conversation? If someone is struggling to make sense of the message being communicated over the telephone, then having to engage further to understand what is being said, automatically introduces more effort, more involvement, resulting in a better receiver.  The Shannon and Weaver model suggests it is not only the ‘Information source’ that is important, but also the ‘Receiver’. Does noise source (entropy) actually strengthen messages due to the amount of attention that is required? Redundant advertising is successful in the sense, that it communicates a particular brand image well. Safety within the message secures and ensures a satisfied audience, with little noise source; little interruption can cause any debate or misunderstanding. Although, redundant advertising could simply be creating a clone-like, dull audience, the advertising itself becomes plain and repetitive. Is it the case that redundancy is successful when communicating, but could it be that entropic advertising advertise better as the rise of debate and questionable sources trigger a more engaged audience.

Essay - revised Bibliography,

References

- http://communicationtheory.org/

- http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=27769378

- http://www.amazon.co.uk/Introduction-Communication-Studies-Culture

- http://www.google.co.uk/imghp?hl=en&tab=wi

- http://stevefournier01.tripod.com/hist/hist-6.html

- http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/westturner/student_resources/theories.htm

- Fiske, J (2002), Introduction to Communication Studies, London, Routledge

- Dimbleby, R, Burton, G, (2001), More Than Words, NY, Routledge

- Powerll, H, Hardy, J, Hawkin, S, Macrury, I, (2009), London, Routledge

- Wolvin, A, Berko, R, (2001), Communicating (Eighth Edition), Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company

- Littlejohn, W, Foss, K, (2005), Theories of Human Communication, California, Wadsworth Publishing Company

- Hickey, L, (2002), Design Secrets: Advertising, Massachusetts, Rockport Publishers

Bibliography

- Fiske, J (2002), Introduction to Communication Studies, London, Routledge

- Dimbleby, R, Burton, G, (2001), More Than Words, NY, Routledge

- Powerll, H, Hardy, J, Hawkin, S, Macrury, I, (2009), London, Routledge

- Wolvin, A, Berko, R, (2001), Communicating (Eighth Edition), Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company

- Littlejohn, W, Foss, K, (2005), Theories of Human Communication, California, Wadsworth Publishing Company

- Hickey, L, (2002), Design Secrets: Advertising, Massachusetts, Rockport Publishers

Essay - bibliography,

Task 4

Whilst looking at Shannon and Weaver's communication model and relating it to this specific piece of design, I think from when it originated from the information source, to when it is received, little of the information is lost. This sign is beaming with clarity, a bright colour to attract the receiver, with one word that communicates little more than what it states. There is no room for debate when it comes to understanding this piece of design. The word 'stop' cannot be interpreted in much else, therefore the message that is received is likely to be the same message that was given out. There is also a lack of detail, which helps disable any forms of noise that could interfere with the communication process. When there is detail there is room for interrogation into the design, which can then cause misunderstanding which ultimately becomes a noise source. The typeface is simple, to make sure it isn't misunderstood as spelling something else (which would be a noise source), and the colour red easily communicates as an alert and not much else.